New Delhi: It's been 63 years since India suffered humiliating defeat at the hands of China's People Liberation of Army, but the scars from the wound incurred during the 1962 war and the subsequent battles that took place in 1967 at Nathu La, 2020 at Galwan Valley and 2022 at Tawang, reminds us that we can't afford to lower our guard even for a moment. The Dragon is always lurking around the corner to breath down our neck.

On October 20, 1962, the PLA launched simultaneous offensives in the western sector (Ladakh) and across the McMahon Line in the eastern sector (Arunachal Pradesh). After a month of conflict, China declared a unilateral ceasefire on November 20, 1962, withdrawing its troops from the eastern sector to the McMahon Line, but retaining control over Aksai Chin.

The 1962 war exposed a series of critical weaknesses in India's military strategy, equipment, and political leadership. Underestimating China's intent, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru's government focused on diplomacy and failed to prepare the military for a high-altitude conflict.

Indian troops were ill-equipped for mountain warfare, lacking proper winter clothing, artillery, and vital supplies. China, by contrast, had superior infrastructure and supply lines in Tibet. The Indian command structure suffered from poor coordination and indecisive leadership. The Indian Air Force (IAF) was largely restricted to transport roles, which political leaders believed would prevent an escalation involving Chinese bombers.

Debacle becomes wake-up call

The decisive defeat served as a wake-up call, prompting an aggressive modernization effort and a fundamental change in military posture.

India sharply increased its defence spending after 1962, about 60 percent higher in 1962–63, and then grew several-fold through the decade to address shortcomings in manpower and weaponry.

New mountain divisions and scout units were raised and specialized training schools, like the High-Altitude Warfare School (HAWS, originally established in 1948 and upgraded in 1962), were developed to train soldiers for mountain combat.

The Indian Army developed one of the world's most experienced high-altitude fighting forces, a fact recognized even by foreign military experts. Learning from its past logistical failures, India initiated a focused effort to build strategic roads, tunnels, and airfields along the border. Key projects, such as the Darbuk-Shyok-Daulat Beg Oldie (DS-DBO) Road, were undertaken to enable rapid troop and equipment movement.

Significant intelligence failures in 1962 prompted a complete overhaul of India's intelligence-gathering capabilities. The Research and Analysis Wing (R & AW) was formed in 1968 to improve external intelligence. The military focused on acquiring advanced weaponry, such as the MiG-21 and modern artillery systems, from international partners.

India maintained a highly experienced, all-volunteer professional army with deep institutional knowledge of the terrain and enemy tactics – both Pakistan and China.

This contributed to India's improved performance in subsequent conflicts, including the 1965, 1967, 1971 and 1999 wars along with the 2020 Galwan Valley clashes. Here's a brief account of our subsequent military victories:

1965 Indo-Pakistani War

Pakistan's“Operation Gibraltar” was initiated by Pakistan on the belief that India was still recovering from its 1962 defeat and that a swift military action could seize Kashmir.

However, the rebuilt and expanded Indian Army, with its improved operational capabilities, repulsed the Pakistani infiltrators. By attacking Pakistan in the Lahore and Sialkot sectors, India forced Pakistan to shift forces away from Kashmir and neutralized its offensive. The war showcased India's newfound strategic agility and military resolve.

1967 Nathu La and Cho La clashes

In 1967, at the Sikkim border, Chinese and Indian troops engaged in clashes. Unlike in 1962, the Indian Army was well-prepared, well-equipped, and held tactically superior positions. Utilizing its mountain artillery and the lessons learned in high-altitude warfare, Indian troops successfully repulsed the Chinese aggression, inflicting heavy casualties.

This decisive engagement served as a powerful testament to India's military transformation and helped in burying the ghosts of 1962 a bit.

1971 and 1999 India-Pakistan War 

The 1971 war was a masterclass in combined-arms warfare, a direct result of the strategic planning and modernisation that began after 1962. India's intelligence apparatus, bolstered by the creation of R & AW, had accurately assessed Pakistan's intentions and military weaknesses. Superior coordination between the Army, Navy, and Air Force, especially in the Eastern theatre, led to a swift and decisive victory, culminating in the surrender of around 93,000 Pakistani troops and the creation of Bangladesh.

The 1962 experience, which highlighted the importance of border infrastructure, was crucial in countering the 1999 intrusions.

The improved road network allowed for rapid deployment of troops and supplies to the conflict zone. The conflict also highlighted gaps in intelligence and surveillance, similar to those in 1962, that enabled Pakistani infiltrators to occupy key positions. However, the Indian military's response was robust and aggressive, using air power and artillery with devastating effect.

2020 Galwan Valley Clash

During the 2020 border standoff, the Indian Army's adaptations were put to the test against the PLA's modern tactics. Indian troops, with their long-term service and extensive high-altitude experience, demonstrated superior endurance and resilience.

Further, India's military modernization, improved border infrastructure, and enhanced strategic posture since 1962 were critical in firmly countering the PLA's actions and containing escalation, thus preventing a wider conflict.

The Indian Army's evolution reflects a painful yet profound military and strategic transformation. The 1962 defeat forced India to confront geopolitical realities and invest in building a more capable defence force.

By 2020, this adaptation had turned the Indian Army into a formidable and resilient force, capable of standing its ground against the PLA in a harsh mountain environment.

The ongoing theaterisation of India's armed forces is a pivotal strategic reform designed to counter evolving threats, particularly from China. This restructuring aims to shift from the current 17 single-service commands to a smaller number of Integrated Theatre Commands responsible for specific geographic or strategic areas. It is intended to dismantle the historical“siloed” approach of the Army, Navy, and Air Force operating independently and bring all the military assets under a single commander. It will enable faster and more coordinated responses to modern, multi-domain warfare that involves land, air, sea, cyber, and space.

The military is pursuing technologies like Artificial Intelligence, robotic combat vehicles, high-power laser systems, and potentially hypersonic weapons, signalling a shift towards preparing for future conflicts. India is enhancing its nuclear capabilities through the development of its Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) program, with a strategic goal of deterring potential threats.

Salami Slicing

Since the 1962 war, China has been aggressively pursuing“salami slicing” policy towards India, that involves gaining disputed territory in small, incremental steps without provoking a full-scale war. China has historically used this approach in the Himalayas to gradually occupy disputed territory along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).

Examples of this tactic in action include:

The 1962 Sino-Indian War: China used this strategy to gradually occupy the Aksai Chin plateau in the 1950s by building roads and making minor incursions, which culminated in the 1962 war and its permanent capture of the territory.

The 2017 Doklam standoff: When China attempted to build a road in the Doklam plateau, an area disputed between China and Bhutan, India intervened due to security implications for its nearby "Chicken's Neck" corridor. India's firm response ultimately thwarted the Chinese plan at that time.

The 2020 Galwan Valley clash: China intruded at multiple points in Ladakh, attempting a large-scale land grab. This led to a violent clash that resulted in casualties on both sides and drastically changed the bilateral relationship.

India's response

Fully aware of China's nefarious intentions, India has adopted a tougher stance against China's incursions, especially since the 2020 Galwan clash. India significantly upgraded its border infrastructure and deployed advanced weaponry and troops to challenge Chinese moves.

India's diplomatic talks have been firm, making it clear that normal relations cannot resume without peace on the border. In addition to military and diplomatic moves, India has also taken economic counter-measures, such as banning Chinese apps and promoting the "Atmanirbhar Bharat" initiative to reduce economic dependence.

By late 2024, India and China reached a limited border verification and disengagement arrangement covering several friction points. While this reduced tensions in many areas, challenges remain in Depsang and Demchok, where buffer zones persist and a final resolution is still pending.

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