Quantum Computers The Key To Elusive 'Theory Of Everything'

Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect paved the way for a new atomic model. Building on the idea that energy comes in discrete packets, Bohr proposed in 1913 that electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed energy levels and can jump between them by absorbing or emitting photons.

This explained atomic spectra, where light appears in distinct lines rather than continuous bands. Bohr's model marked the beginning of quantum mechanics and laid the foundation for what would later become the Standard Model of particle physics, which unifies our understanding of fundamental particles and their interactions.

Notably, in that same year that Einstein published his paper on the photoelectric effect, in 1905, he also published his Special Theory of Relativity, in which he described space and time not as discrete but as continuous. In relativity, space and time are“classical”, i.e., Newtonian.

A decade later, Einstein's General Relativity extended this continuous framework to gravity, describing it as the smooth, continuous curvature of spacetime. Confirmed by the 1919 eclipse expedition of physicist and astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington, relativity became the foundation for understanding the macrocosmos.

In this way, Einstein advanced both sides of the great divide: the quantum world of discrete quanta and the relativistic universe of continuous spacetime. Yet these two pillars of physics remain mathematically incompatible , underscoring the unresolved challenge of uniting the discrete and the continuous in a single theory.

Efforts to reconcile relativity with quantum mechanics gave rise to hybrid models that weave together discrete and continuous mathematics. The three best-known examples are:

– Loop Quantum Gravity (LQG): Describes space as built from discrete“chunks” (spin networks), while its evolution unfolds through continuous geometry.

– String Theory: Envisions strings as continuous, vibrating objects whose modes of vibration produce discrete particle spectra.

– Quantum Field Theory (QFT): Treats fields as continuous entities, but their excitations manifest as discrete particles.

Each of these approaches represents an attempt to bridge the gap between discreteness and continuity, in effect seeking a unified framework for the fundamental structure of nature.

Quantum computing, first proposed by American physicist Richard Feynman in the 1960s, brings the discrete-continuous puzzle into sharp relief.

This third generation of computing, after analog and digital, computes with subatomic particles rather than with electronic currents. The computational unit of quantum computing, the qubit, embodies both discrete and continuous processes.

Like a classical bit, a qubit has two poles – 0 and 1 – but poles can exist in superposition, meaning it can be partly 0 and partly 1 at the same time, depending on the context and the state or surrounding qubits.

On the Bloch sphere, continuous operations are represented as points on its smooth surface. Computation uses the discrete (binary) states (0 and 1) for logic, while continuous (analog) rotations across the sphere govern the operations.

The real breakthrough comes when qubits are linked through entanglement, a phenomenon in which two or more qubits share the same quantum state no matter how far apart they are. This enables quantum computers to process multiple possibilities simultaneously, rather than one step at a time, as classical machines do.

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This dual character – superposition and entanglement – gives quantum computers extraordinary power. Tasks such as simulating molecules with dozens of atoms, impossible for today's fastest supercomputers, could be completed in minutes on a quantum machine.

Quantum computing may help resolve the dichotomies between quantum mechanics and Relativity, between wave and particle duality, and between continuous and discrete, thereby broadening our understanding of the universe.

Fig. 6. Continuous and Discrete Mathematics used in quantum computing.
Infinity in reach

For centuries, scientific progress has been driven by extending human senses through the use of instruments. Telescopes opened the heavens to reveal Earth's place in the cosmos; particle colliders probe the tiniest scales, uncovering the particles of the Standard Model.

Now, the quantum computer may emerge as a new kind of instrument, not one that looks outward or smashes particles, but one that explores reality by simulation. It will allow physicists to model quantum fields, black holes and exotic states of matter in ways classical machines cannot. It may even be able to simulate the Big Bang.

Where telescopes opened the infinitely large and colliders the infinitely small, quantum computing may expand our grasp of the infinitely complex, and perhaps of infinity itself. It may even lead to the elusive Theory of Everything.

Jan Krikke is a journalist based in Thailand. His latest book is an AI-mediated bio titled“East and West at the Crossroads: Integrating Science, Ethics, and Consciousness Across Cultures.” It may be purchased here .

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