How To Examine The Divergent Histories Of Ancient Rome And China

2025-09-12 07:01:19

(MENAFN- Asia Times) This is the text of a speech –“First notes on geo-philosophy” – delivered at the First World History Frontiers Forum, organized by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, September 12, 2025, Beijing, and published by the Appia Institute , of which the author is director. It is republished with permission.

The differences between the ancient Chinese state and the ancient Roman state, as observed by Feng Youlan a century ago, begin with the geographical environments in which the two civilizations developed.

The Roman Empire was established around the Mediterranean, building upon the foundations laid by the Greeks and Phoenicians. These earlier peoples had already mastered the sea; they were skilled navigators, and Rome first had to wrest control of the Italian peninsula from them to ultimately rule the Mediterranean. Operating one of their early ships were two parallel lines of rowers – all equals – who had to work in perfect unison. The captain was simply the one with the heaviest oar: the rudder.

The phalanx, the model army of the Greeks and the foundation of the Roman legion, was also a group of equals. The king held the main line of the phalanx; the spear was used somewhat like an oar. Whether in a boat or a battle formation, the key was cohesion. If one person made a mistake, the entire ship could sink, and the same was true for the phalanx, whose break could lead to defeat. Therefore, the main goal was to maintain equal effectiveness, governed by the simple rule coordinating the rowers or the steps of the phalanx.

Moreover, the Mediterranean is a treacherous sea where winds and currents can change at any moment. Mistakes are inevitable because the sea and wind are unpredictable. The goal, then, is not to execute a single plan consistently over a long period but to cultivate the ability to correct sudden errors and adapt to surprises.

The political structure of Sparta, or its equivalent in the Roman Republic, was designed to correct mistakes. Sparta had two kings who ruled in succession; similarly, Rome had two consuls who also ruled sequentially. This system aimed to correct potential errors made by the previous leader. It proved highly effective, enabling the Greek League to defeat the mighty Persian Empire. Later, under the leadership of Alexander of Macedon, the phalanx conquered half the known world, demonstrating its unstoppable force.

The Greeks and Romans were both merchants and pirates. The legion was organized almost like a private equity firm: Everyone was entitled to a share of the loot based on rank. As an organization of equals, its members had rights that matched their duties – two sides of the same coin. One had to stay in formation in the legion, holding the shield, and would receive payment based on performance.

The Mediterranean was a vast, open area bordered by three continents and six other seas, a geography that for centuries prevented its political unification. It was unified only once, by the Romans – a feat never achieved again. Although the sea remains a fiercely contested battlefield to this day, its unity was never pursued after Rome.

The Chinese space

The Chinese space was profoundly different. First, it was enclosed. To the north lay the steppes, to the west the desert and mountains and to the south more mountains and dense jungle. To the east was an archipelago and a peninsula, and beyond that, a vast, endless ocean. This limited space was challenging to access. Originally, it was also a dense jungle inhabited by elephants and other wild animals, with formidable mountains and rivers.

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